• Rakuten average operating margin for 2023 was -13.32%, a 24.87% decline from 2022.
• Rakuten average operating margin for 2022 was -17.73%, a 84.69% decline from 2021.
• Rakuten average operating margin for 2021 was -9.6%, a 69.31% increase from 2020.

Operating margin can be defined as operating margin measurement of what proportion of a company's revenue is left over after paying for variable costs of production such as wages, raw materials, etc.